mc.eatersofthedead-第34部分

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6　Or；　possibly；　〃crazed。〃　The　Latin　manuscripts　read　cerritus；　but　the　Arabic　of　Yakut　says　（。。。）；　〃dazed〃　or　〃dazzled。〃
7　Interestingly；　in　both　Arabic　and　Latin；　literally　〃disease。〃
8　The　perils　of　translation　are　demonstrated　in　this　sentence。　The　original　Arabic　of　Yakut　reads　（。。。）　and　means　literally　〃There　is　no　name　I　can　speak。〃　The　Xymos　manuscript　employs　the　Latin　verb　dare；　with　the　meaning　〃I　cannot　give　it　a　name；〃　implying　that　the　interpreter　does　not　know　the　correct　word　in　a　non…Norse　tongue。　The　Razi　manuscript；　which　also　contains　the　interpreter's　speeches　in　fuller　detail；　uses　the　word　edere；　with　the　meaning　〃There　is　no　name　that　I　can　make　known　＇to　you＇。〃　This　is　the　more　correct　translation。　The　Northman　is　literally　afraid　to　say　the　word；　lest　it　call　up　demons。　In　Latin；　edere　has　the　sense　of　〃giving　birth　to〃　and　〃calling　up；〃　as　well　as　its　literal　meaning；　〃to　put　forth。〃　Later　paragraphs　confirm　this　sense　of　the　meaning。
9　Wulfgar　was　left　behind。　Jensen　states　the　Northmen　monly　held　a　messenger　as　hostage；　and　this　is　why　〃appropriate　messengers　were　the　sons　of　kings；　or　high　nobles；　or　other　persons　who　had　some　value　to　their　own　munity；　thus　making　them　fitting　hostages。〃　Olaf　Jorgensen　argues　that　Wulfgar　remained　behind　because　he　was　afraid　to　go　back。
10　Some　early　authors　apparently　thought　this　meant　that　the　sail　was　hemmed　in　rope；　there　are　eighteenth…century　drawings　that　show　the　Viking　sails　with　rope　borderings。　There　is　no　evidence　that　this　was　the　case；　Ibn　Fadlan　meant　that　the　sails　were　trimmed　in　the　nautical　sense；　i。e。；　angled　to　best　catch　the　wind；　by　the　use　of　sealskin　ropes　as　halyards。
11　This　is　a　typically　Muslim　sentiment。　Unlike　Christianity；　a　religion　which　in　many　ways　it　resembles；　Islam　does　not　emphasize　a　concept　of　original　sin　arising　from　the　fall　of　man。　Sin　for　a　Muslim　is　forgetfulness　in　carrying　out　the　prescribed　daily　rituals　of　the　religion。　As　a　corollary；　it　is　a　more　serious　offense　to　forget　the　ritual　entirely　than　to　remember　the　ritual　and　yet　fail　to　carry　it　out　either　through　extenuating　circumstances　or　personal　inadequacy。　Thus　Ibn　Fadlan　is　saying；　in　effect；　that　he　is　mindful　of　proper　conduct　even　though　he　is　not　acting　according　to　it；　this　is　better　than　nothing。
12　Other　eyewitness　accounts　disagree　with　Ibn　Fadlan's　description　of　the　treatment　of　slaves　and　adultery；　and　therefore　some　authorities　question　his　reliability　as　a　social　observer。　In　fact　there　was　probably　substantial　local　variation；　from　tribe　to　tribe；　in　the　accepted　treatment　of　slaves　and　unfaithful　wives。
13　There　is　some　dispute　among　modern　scholars　about　the　origin　of　the　term　〃Viking；〃　but　most　agree　with　Ibn　Fadlan；　that　it　derives　from　〃vik；〃　meaning　a　creek　or　narrow　river。
14　The　accuracy　of　Ibn　Fadlan's　reporting　is　confirmed　here　by　direct　archaeological　evidence。　In　1948　the　military　site　of　Trelleborg；　in　western　Zealand　in　Denmark；　was　excavated。　The　site　corresponds　exactly　to　Ibn　Fadlan's　description　of　the　size；　nature；　and　structure　of　the　settlement。
15　Literally；　〃a　two…handed　man。〃　As　will　be　clear　later；　the　Northmen　were　ambidextrous　in　fighting；　and　to　shift　weapons　from　one　hand　to　another　was　considered　an　admirable　trick。　Thus　a　two…handed　man　is　cunning。　A　related　meaning　was　once　attached　to　the　word　〃shifty；〃　which　now　means　deceitful　and　evasive；　but　formerly　had　a　more　positive　sense　of　〃resourceful；　full　of　maneuvers。〃
16　This　account　of　what　is　obviously　a　sighting　of　whales　is　disputed　by　many　scholars。　It　appears　in　the　manuscript　of　Razi　as　it　is　here；　but　in　Sjogren's　translation　it　is　much　briefer；　and　in　it　the　Northmen　are　shown　as　playing　an　elaborate　joke　upon　the　Arab。　The　Northmen　knew　about　whales　and　distinguished　them　from　sea　monsters；　according　to　Sjogren。　Other　scholars；　including　Hassan；　doubt　that　Ibn　Fadlan　could　be　unaware　of　the　existence　of　whales；　as　he　appears　to　be　here。
17　Popular　representations　of　the　Scandinavians　always　show　them　wearing　helmets　with　horns。　This　is　an　anachronism；　at　the　time　of　Ibn　Fadlan's　visit；　such　helmets　had　not　been　worn　for　more　than　a　thousand　years；　since　the　Early　Bronze　Age。
18　The　described　figurine　corresponds　closely　to　several　carvings　discovered　by　archaeologists　in　France　and　Austria。
19　Ducere　spiritu：　literally；　〃to　inhale。〃
20　This　is　not　the　same　〃angel　of　death〃　who　was　with　the　Northmen　on　the　banks　of　the　Volga。　Apparently　each　tribe　had　an　old　woman　who　performed　shamanistic　functions　and　was　referred　to　as　〃the　angel　of　death。〃　It　is　thus　a　generic　term。
21　The　Scandinavians　were　apparently　more　impressed　by　the　stealth　and　viciousness　of　the　creatures　than　the　fact　of　their　cannibalism。　Jensen　suggests　that　cannibalism　might　be　abhorrent　to　the　Norsemen　because　it　made　entry　into　Valhalla　more　difficult；　there　is　no　evidence　for　this　view。
　　　However；　for　Ibn　Fadlan；　with　his　extensive　erudition；　the　notion　of　cannibalism　may　have　implied　some　difficulties　in　the　afterlife。　The　Eater　of　the　Dead　is　a　well…known　creature　of　Egyptian　mythology；　a　fearsome　beast　with　the　head　of　a　crocodile；　the　trunk　of　a　lion；　and　the　back　of　a　hippopotamus。　This　Eater　of　the　Dead　devours　the　wicked　after　their　Judgment。
　　　It　is　worth　remembering　that　for　most　of　man's　history；　ritual　cannibalism；　in　one　form　or　another；　for　one　reason　or　another；　was　neither　rare　nor　remarkable。　Peking　man　and　Neanderthal　man　were　both　apparently　cannibals；　so　were；　at　various　times；　the　Scythians；　the　Chinese；　the　Irish；　the　Peruvians；　the　Mayoruna；　the　Jagas；　the　Egyptians；　the　Australian　aborigines；　the　Maoris；　the　Greeks；　the　Hurons；　the　Iroquois；　the　Pawnees；　and　the　Ashanti。
　　　During　the　time　Ibn　Fadlan　was　in　Scandinavia；　other　Arab　traders　were　in　China；　where　they　recorded　that　human　flesh…referred　to　as　〃two…legged　mutton〃…was　openly　and　legally　sold　in　markets。
　　　Martinson　suggests　that　the　Northmen　found　the　wendol　cannibalism　repellent　because　they　believed　that　the　flesh　of　warriors　was　fed　to　women；　particularly　the　mother　of　the　wendol。　There　is　no　evidence　for　this　view；　either；　but　it　would　certainly　make　a　Norse　warrior's　death　more　shameful。
22　An　Arab　would　be　especially　inclined　to　think　so；　for　Islamic　religious　art　tends　to　be　nonrepresentational；　and　in　quality　similar　to　much　Scandinavian　art；　which　often　seems　to　favor　pure　design。　However；　the　Norsemen　had　no　injunction　against　representing　gods；　and　often　did　so。
23　（。。。）　：　literally；　〃veins。〃　The　Arabic　phrase　has　led　to　some　scholarly　errors；　E。　D。　Graham　has　written；　for　example；　that　〃the　Vikings　foretold　the　future　by　a　ritual　of　cutting　the　veins　of　animals　and　spreading　them　on　the　ground。〃　This　is　almost　certainty　wrong；　the　Arabic　phrase　for　cleaning　an　animal　is　〃cutting　the　veins；〃　and　Ibn　Fadlan　was　here　referring　to　the　widespread　practice　of　divination　by　examination　of　entrails。　Linguists；　who　deal　with　such　vernacular　phrases　all　the　time；　are　fond　of　discrepancies　in　meaning；　a　favorite　example　of　Halstead's　is　the　English　warning　〃Look　out！〃　which　usually　means　that　one　should　do　exactly　the　opposite　and　dive　for　cover。
24　Circumcision。
25　Ibn　Fadlan　does　not　describe　a　basilisk；　apparently　assuming　that　his　readers　are　familiar　with　the　mythological　creature；　which　appears　in　the　early　beliefs　of　nearly　all　Western　cultures。　Also　known　as　a　cockatrice；　the　basilisk　is　generally　a　variety　of　cock　with　a　serpent's　tail　and　eight　legs；　and　sometimes　bearing　scales　instead　of　feathers。　What　is　always　true　of　the　basilisk　is　that　his　stare　is　deadly；　like　the　stare　of　a　Gorgon；　and　the　venom　of　the　basilisk　is　particularly　lethal。　According　to　some　accounts；　a　person　who　stabs　a　basilisk　will　watch　the　venom　travel　up　the　sword　and　onto　his　hand。　The　man　will　then　be　obliged　to　cut　off　his　own　hand　to　save　his　body。
　　　It　is　probably　this　sense　of　the　danger　of　the　basilisk　that　prompts　its　mention　here。　The　old　noble　is　telling　Ibn　Fadlan　that　a　direct　confrontation　with　the　troublemakers　will　not　solve　the　problem。　Interestingly；　one　way　to　dispatch　a　basilisk　was　to　let　it　see　its　reflected　image　in　a　mirror；　it　would　then　be　killed　by　its　own　stare。