mc.eatersofthedead-第35部分

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　would　then　be　killed　by　its　own　stare。
26　（。。。）　in　Arabic；　and　in　the　Latin　texts；　verbera。　Both　words　meaning　〃flogging〃　or　〃whipping；〃　and　not　〃flinging；〃　as　this　passage　is　ordinarily　translated。　It　is　usually　assumed　that　Ibn　Fadlan　used　the　metaphor　of　〃whipping〃　with　dirt　to　emphasize　the　ferocity　of　the　insult；　which　is　clear　enough　in　any　case。　However；　he　may　have　consciously　or　unconsciously　transmitted　a　distinctly　Scandinavian　attitude　toward　insults。
　　　Another　Arab　reporter；　al…Tartushi；　visited　the　town　of　Hedeby　in　A。D。　950；　and　said　this　about　the　Scandinavians：　〃They　are　most　peculiar　in　the　matter　of　punishment。　They　have　only　three　penalties　for　wrongdoing。　The　first　of　these　and　the　most　feared　is　banishment　from　the　tribe。　The　second　is　to　be　sold　into　slavery　and　the　third　is　death。　Women　who　do　wrong　are　sold　as　slaves。　Men　always　prefer　death。　Flogging　is　unknown　to　the　Northmen。〃
　　　This　view　is　not　precisely　shared　by　Adam　of　Bremen；　a　German　ecclesiastical　historian；　who　wrote　in　1075：　〃If　women　have　been　found　unchaste；　they　are　sold　off　at　once；　but　if　men　are　found　guilty　of　treason　or　any　other　crime；　they　prefer　to　be　beheaded　than　flogged。　No　form　of　punishment　other　than　the　axe　or　slavery　is　known　to　them。〃
　　　The　historian　Sjogren　places　great　importance　on　Adam's　statement　that　men　would　prefer　to　be　beheaded　rather　than　flogged。　This　would　seem　to　suggest　that　flogging　was　known　among　the　Northmen；　and　he　argues　further　that　it　was　most　likely　a　punishment　for　slaves。　〃Slaves　are　property；　and　it　is　economically　unwise　to　kill　them　for　minor　offenses；　surely　whipping　was　an　accepted　form　of　punishment　to　a　slave。　Thus　it　may　be　that　warriors　viewed　whipping　as　a　degraded　penalty　because　it　was　reserved　for　slaves。〃　Sjogren　also　argues　that　〃all　we　know　of　Viking　life　points　to　a　society　founded　upon　the　idea　of　shame；　not　guilt；　as　the　negative　behavioral　pole。　Vikings　never　felt　guilt　about　anything；　but　they　defended　their　honor　fiercely；　and　would　avoid　a　shameful　act　at　any　cost。　Passively　submitting　to　the　whip　must　have　been　adjudged　shameful　in　the　extreme；　and　far　worse　than　death　itself。〃
　　　These　speculations　carry　us　back　to　Ibn　Fadlan's　manuscript；　and　his　choice　of　the　words　〃whipping　with　dirt。〃　Since　the　Arab　is　so　fastidious；　one　might　wonder　whether　his　words　reflect　an　Islamic　attitude。　In　this　regard；　we　should　remember　that　while　Ibn　Fadlan's　world　was　certainly　divided　into　clean　and　dirty　things　and　acts；　soil　itself　was　not　necessarily　dirty。　On　the　contrary；　tayammum；　ablution　with　dust　or　sand；　is　carried　out　whenever　ablution　with　water　is　not　possible。　Thus　Ibn　Fadlan　had　no　particular　abhorrence　of　soil　on　one's　person；　he　would　have　been　much　more　upset　if　he　were　asked　to　drink　from　a　gold　cup；　which　was　strictly　forbidden。
27　This　passage　is　apparently　the　source　of　the　1869　ment　by　the　scholarly　Rev。　Noel　Harleigh　that　〃among　the　barbaric　Vikings；　morality　was　so　perversely　inverted　that　their　sense　of　alms　was　the　dues　paid　to　weapons…makers。〃　Harleigh's　Victorian　assurance　exceeded　his　linguistic　knowledge。　The　Norse　word　alm　means　elm；　the　resilient　wood　from　which　the　Scandinavians　made　bows　and　arrows。　It　is　only　by　chance　that　this　word　also　has　an　English　meaning。　（The　English　〃alms〃　meaning　charitable　donations　is　usually　thought　to　derive　from　the　Greek　eleos；　to　pity。）
28　Linea　adeps：　literally；　〃fat　line。〃　Although　the　anatomical　wisdom　of　the　passage　has　never　been　questioned　by　soldiers　in　the　thousand　years　since…for　the　midline　of　the　body　is　where　the　most　vital　nerves　and　vessels　are　all　found…the　precise　derivation　of　the　term　has　been　mysterious。　In　this　regard；　it　is　interesting　to　note　that　one　of　the　Icelandic　sagas　mentions　a　wounded　warrior　in　1030　who　pulls　an　arrow　from　his　chest　and　sees　bits　of　flesh　attached　to　the　point；　he　then　says　that　he　still　has　fat　around　his　heart。　Most　scholars　agree　that　this　is　an　ironic　ment　from　a　warrior　who　knows　that　he　has　been　mortally　wounded；　and　this　makes　good　anatomical　sense。
　　　In　1847；　the　American　historian　Robert　Miller　referred　to　this　passage　of　Ibn　Fadlan　when　he　said；　〃Although　ferocious　warriors；　the　Vikings　had　a　poor　knowledge　of　physiognomy。　Their　men　were　instructed　to　seek　out　the　vertical　midline　of　the　opponent's　body；　but　in　doing　so；　of　course；　they　would　miss　the　heart；　positioned　as　it　is　in　the　left　chest。〃
　　　The　poor　knowledge　must　be　attributed　to　Miller；　and　not　the　Vikings。　For　the　last　several　hundred　years；　ordinary　Western　men　had　believed　the　heart　to　be　located　in　the　left　chest；　Americans　put　their　hands　over　their　hearts　when　they　pledge　allegiance　to　the　flag；　we　have　a　strong　folk　tradition　of　soldiers　being　saved　from　death　by　a　Bible　carried　in　the　breast　pocket　that　stops　the　fatal　bullet；　and　so　on。　In　fact；　the　heart　is　a　midline　structure　that　extends　to　varying　degrees　into　the　left　chest；　but　a　midline　wound　in　the　chest　will　always　pierce　the　heart。
29　According　to　divine　law；　Muslims　believe　that　〃the　Messenger　of　God　has　forbidden　cruelty　to　animals。〃　This　extends　to　such　mundane　details　as　the　mandment　to　unload　pack　animals　promptly；　so　that　they　will　not　be　unnecessarily　burdened。　Furthermore；　the　Arabs　have　always　taken　a　special　delight　in　breeding　and　training　horses。　The　Scandinavians　had　no　special　feeling　toward　animals；　nearly　all　Arab　observers　mented　on　their　lack　of　affection　for　horses。
30　Most　early　translators　of　Ibn　Fadlan's　manuscript　were　Christians　with　no　knowledge　of　Arabic　culture；　and　their　interpretation　of　this　passage　reflects　that　ignorance。　In　a　very　free　translation；　the　Italian　Lacalla　（1847）　says：　〃In　the　morning　I　arose　from　my　drunken　stupor　like　a　mon　dog；　and　was　much　ashamed　for　my　condition。〃　And　Skovmand；　in　his　1919　mentary；　brusquely　concludes　that　〃one　cannot　place　credence　in　Ibn　Fadlan's　stories；　for　he　was　drunk　during　the　battles；　and　admits　as　much。〃　More　charitably；　Du　Chatellier；　a　confirmed　Vikingophile；　said　in　1908：　〃The　Arab　soon　acquired　the　intoxication　of　the　battle　that　is　the　very　essence　of　the　Norse　heroic　spirit。〃
　　　I　am　indebted　to　Massud　Farzan；　the　Sufi　scholar；　for　explaining　the　allusion　that　Ibn　Fadlan　is　making　here。　Actually；　he　is　paring　himself　to　a　character　in　a　very　old　Arabic　joke：
　　　A　drunken　man　falls　into　a　puddle　of　his　own　vomit　by　the　roadside。　A　dog　es　along　and　begins　licking　his　face。　The　drunk　assumes　a　kind　person　is　cleaning　his　face；　and　says　gratefully；　〃May　Allah　make　your　children　obedient。〃　Then　the　dog　raises　his　leg　and　urinates　on　the　drunkard；　who　responds；　〃And　may　God　bless　you；　brother；　for　having　brought　warm　water　to　wash　my　face。〃
　　　In　Arabic；　the　joke　carries　the　usual　injunction　against　drunkenness；　and　the　subtle　reminder　that　liquor　is　khmer；　or　filth；　as　is　urine。
　　　Ibn　Fadlan　probably　expected　his　reader　to　think；　not　that　he　was　ever　drunk；　but　rather　that　he　luckily　avoided　being　urinated　upon　by　the　dog；　as　he　earlier　escaped　death　in　battle：　it　is　a　reference；　in　other　words；　to　another　near　miss。
31　Urine　is　a　source　of　ammonia；　an　excellent　cleaning　pound。
32　Some　authorities　on　mythology　argue　that　the　Scandinavians　did　not　originate　this　idea　of　an　eternal　battle；　but　rather　that　this　is　a　Celtic　concept。　Whatever　the　truth；　it　is　perfectly　reasonable　that　Ibn　Fadlan's　panions　should　have　adopted　the　concept；　for　the　Scandinavians　had　been　in　contact　with　Celts　for　over　a　hundred　and　fifty　years　at　this　time。
33　（。。。）　literally；　〃desert　of　dread。〃　In　a　paper　in　1927；　J。　G。　Tomlinson　pointed　out　that　precisely　the　same　phrase　appears　in　the　Volsunga　Saga；　and　therefore　argued　at　length　that　it　represented　a　generic　term　for　taboo　lands。　Tomlinson　was　apparently　unaware　that　the　Volsunga　Saga　says　nothing　of　the　sort；　the　nineteenth…century　translation　of　William　Morris　indeed　contains　the　line　〃There　is　a　desert　of　dread　in　the　uttermost　part　of　the　world；〃　but　this　line　was　Morris's　own　invention；　appearing　in　one　of　the　many　passages　where　he　expanded　upon　the　original　Germanic　saga。
34　The　Islamic　injunction　against　alcohol　is　literally　an　injunction　against　the　fermented　fruit　of　the　grape；　i。e。；　wine。　Ferment