mc.eatersofthedead-第36部分

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34　The　Islamic　injunction　against　alcohol　is　literally　an　injunction　against　the　fermented　fruit　of　the　grape；　i。e。；　wine。　Fermented　drinks　of　honey　are　specifically　permitted　to　Muslims。
35　The　usual　psychiatric　explanation　for　such　fears　of　loss　of　body　parts　is　that　they　represent　castration　anxiety。　In　a　1937　review；　Deformations　of　Body　Image　in　Primitive　Societies；　Engelhardt　observes　that　many　cultures　are　explicit　about　this　belief。　For　example；　the　Nanamani　of　Brazil　punish　sexual　offenders　by　cutting　off　the　left　ear；　this　is　thought　to　reduce　sexual　potency。　Other　societies　attach　significance　to　the　loss　of　fingers；　toes；　or；　in　the　case　of　the　Northmen；　the　nose。　It　is　a　mon　superstition　in　many　societies　that　the　size　of　a　man's　nose　reflects　the　size　of　his　penis。
　　　Emerson　argues　that　the　importance　accorded　the　nose　by　primitive　societies　reflects　a　vestigial　attitude　from　the　days　when　men　were　hunters　and　relied　heavily　upon　a　sense　of　smell　to　find　game　and　avoid　enemies；　in　such　a　life；　the　loss　of　smell　was　a　serious　injury　indeed。
36　In　the　Mediterranean；　from　Egyptian　times；　dwarves　were　thought　especially　intelligent　and　trustworthy；　and　tasks　of　bookkeeping　and　money…handling　were　reserved　to　them。
37　Of　approximately　ninety　skeletons　that　can　be　confidently　ascribed　to　the　Viking　period　in　Scandinavia；　the　average　height　appears　to　be　about　170　centimeters　（5'7〃）。
38　Dahlmann　（1924）　writes　that　〃for　ceremonial　occasions　the　ram　was　eaten　to　increase　potency；　since　the　horned　male　animal　was　judged　superior　to　the　female。〃　In　fact；　during　this　period　both　rams　and　ewes　had　horns。
39　Joseph　Cantrell　observes　that　〃there　is　a　strain　in　Germanic　and　Norse　mythology　which　holds　that　women　have　special　powers；　qualities　of　magic；　and　should　be　feared　and　mistrusted　by　men。　The　principal　gods　are　all　men；　but　the　Valkyries；　which　means　literally　'choosers　of　the　slain；'　are　women　who　transport　dead　warriors　to　Paradise。　It　was　believed　that　there　were　three　Valkyries；　as　there　were　three　Norns；　or　Fates；　which　were　present　at　the　birth　of　every　man；　and　determined　the　oute　of　his　life。　The　Norns　were　named　Urth；　the　past；　Verthandi；　the　present；　and　Skuld；　the　future。　The　Norns　'wove'　a　man's　fate；　and　weaving　was　a　woman's　work；　in　popular　representations　they　were　shown　as　young　maidens。　Wyrd；　an　Anglo…Saxon　deity　which　ruled　fate；　was　also　a　goddess。　Presumably　the　association　of　women　with　man's　fate　was　a　permutation　of　earlier　concepts　of　women　as　fertility　symbols；　the　goddesses　of　fertility　controlled　the　growing　and　flowering　of　crops　and　living　things　on　the　earth。〃
　　　Cantrell　also　notes　that　〃in　practice；　we　know　that　divination；　spellcasting；　and　other　shamanistic　functions　were　reserved　to　elderly　women　in　Norse　society。　Furthermore；　popular　ideas　of　women　contained　a　heavy　element　of　suspicion。　According　to　the　Harvamal；　'No　one　should　trust　the　words　of　a　girl　or　a　married　woman；　for　their　hearts　have　been　shaped　on　a　turning　wheel　and　they　are　inconstant　by　nature。'　〃
　　　Bendixon　says；　〃Among　the　early　Scandinavians　there　was　a　kind　of　division　of　power　according　to　sex。　Men　ruled　physical　affairs；　women；　psychological　matters。〃
40　This　is　a　paraphrase　of　a　sentiment　among　the　Northmen；　expressed　fully　as：　〃Praise　not　the　day　until　evening　has　e；　a　woman　until　she　is　burnt；　a　sword　until　it　is　tried；　a　maiden　until　she　is　married；　ice　until　it　has　been　crossed；　beer　until　it　has　been　drunk。〃　This　prudent；　realistic；　and　somewhat　cynical　view　of　human　nature　and　the　world　was　something　the　Scandinavians　and　the　Arabs　shared。　And　like　the　Scandinavians；　the　Arabs　often　express　it　in　mundane　or　satiric　terms。　There　is　a　Sufi　story　about　a　man　who　asked　a　sage：　〃Suppose　I　am　traveling　in　the　countryside　and　must　make　ablutions　in　the　stream。　Which　direction　do　I　face　while　performing　the　ritual？〃　To　this　the　sage　replies：　〃In　the　direction　of　your　clothes；　so　they　won't　be　stolen。〃
41　In　the　Faeroe　Islands　of　Denmark；　a　similar　method　of　scaling　cliffs　is　still　practiced　to　gather　bird　eggs；　an　important　source　of　food　to　the　islanders。
42　This　description　of　the　physical　features　of　the　wendol　has　sparked　a　predictable　debate。　See　Appendix。
43　Lectulus。
44　Fenestra　porcus：　literally；　〃pig　window。〃　The　Norsemen　used　stretched　membranes　instead　of　glass　to　cover　narrow　windows；　these　membranes　were　translucent。　One　could　not　see　much　through　them；　but　light　would　be　admitted　into　houses。
45　This　section　of　the　manuscript　is　pieced　together　from　the　manuscript　of　Razi；　whose　chief　interest　was　military　techniques。　Whether　or　not　Ibn　Fadlan　knew；　or　recorded；　the　significance　of　Buliwyf's　reappearance　is　unknown。　Certainly　Razi　did　not　include　it；　although　the　significance　is　obvious　enough。　In　Norse　mythology；　Odin　is　popularly　represented　as　bearing　a　raven　on　each　shoulder。　These　birds　bring　him　all　the　news　of　the　world。　Odin　was　the　principal　deity　of　the　Norse　pantheon　and　was　considered　the　Universal　Father。　He　ruled　especially　in　matters　of　warfare；　it　was　believed　that　from　time　to　time　he　would　appear　among　men；　although　rarely　in　his　godlike　form；　preferring　to　assume　the　appearance　of　a　simple　traveler。　It　was　said　that　an　enemy　would　be　scared　away　simply　by　his　presence。
　　　Interestingly；　there　is　a　story　about　Odin　in　which　he　is　killed　and　resurrected　after　nine　days；　most　authorities　believe　this　idea　antedates　any　Christian　influence。　In　any　case；　the　resurrected　Odin　was　still　mortal；　and　it　was　believed　that　he　would　someday　finally　die。
46　The　classic　popular　account　of　Evans　and　Schliemann　is　C。　W。　Ceram　（Kurt　W。　Marek）；　Gods；　Graves；　and　Scholars；　Alfred　A。　Knopf；　New　York；　1967。
47　M。　I。　Finley；　The　World　of　Odysseus；　Viking　Press；　New　York；　1965。
48　Lionel　Casson；　The　Ancient　Mariners；　Sea　Farers　and　Sea　Fighters　of　the　Mediterranean　in　Ancient　Times；　Macmillan；　New　York；　1959。
49　Among　the　many　discussions　of　Viking　society　for　the　general　reader；　see：　D。　M。　Wilson；　The　Vikings；　London；　1970；　J。　Brondsted；　The　Vikings；　London；　1965；　P。　Sawyer；　The　Age　of　the　Vikings；　London；　1962；　P。　G。　Foote　and　D。　M。　Wilson；　The　Viking　Achievement；　London；　1970。　Some　of　these　references　quote　passages　from　Ibn　Fadlan's　manuscript。
50　To　my　knowledge　there　are　still　only　two　principal　sources　in　English。　The　first　is　the　text　fragments　I　read　as　an　undergraduate：　Robert　Blake　and　Richard　Frye；　〃The　Vikings　Abroad　and　at　Home；〃　in　Carleton　S。　Coon；　A　Reader　in　General　Anthropology；　Henry　Holt　and　Co。；　New　York；　1952；　pp。　410…416。　The　second　source　is　Robert　P。　Blake　and　Richard　N。　Frye；　〃Notes　on　the　Risala　of　Ibn…Fadlan；〃　Byzantina　Metabyzantina；　1949；　v。1　part　2；　New　York；　pp。　7…37。　I　am　grateful　to　Professor　Frye　for　his　assistance　during　the　first　publication　of　this　book；　and　this　recent　revision。
51　For　trends　in　post…modern　academic　thought；　see；　for　example；　Pauline　Marie　Rosenau；　Post…Modernism　and　the　Social　Sciences：　Insights；　Inroads；　and　Intrusions；　Princeton；　New　Jersey；　1992；　and　H。　Aram　Veser；　ed。；　The　New　Historicism；　Routledge；　New　York；　1989。
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