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responsibility　were　high　on　the　list　of　skills　needed　for　success　in　business。　
The　tips　about　how　to　behave　on　foreign　business　trips　and　on　forging　
partnerships　are　as　valid　now　as　they　were　800　years　ago：　
。　He　should　be　‘polite　and　agreeable’　but　should　examine　goods　before　
he　buys　them　and　in　the　presence　of　witnesses。　If　by　chance　he　has　
purchased　inferior　goods；　let　him　resell　them　for　what　they　are　and；　
taking　his　losses；　deceive　no　one；　as　he　has　been　deceived。　
。　When　abroad；　the　merchant　should　live　well　but　carefully　and　with　
restraint　of　speech　and　passion。　
。　He　should　study　especially　the　local　law　books；　when　he　has　time。　He　
should　master　the　customs　of　the　place　he　is　trading　in。　
。　He　should　shun　drinking；　chess；　harlots；　quarrelling；　and　gambling。　
。　He　should　study　the　sky；　directions；　and　the　sea　so　as　to　be　able　to　navigate。　
All　merchants　have　great　need　of　arithmetic。　
。　Let　him　cultivate　the　friendship　of　the　officials　of　the　country　in　which　
he　trades　and　pay　the　dues　that　are　required。　Let　him　see　to　it　that　none　
of　the　government’s　property　gets　into　his　cargo。　
。　He　should　sell　quickly　if　he　can　get　suitable　prices　and　then　be　off；　for　a　
quick　turnover　is　the　life　of　trade。
Business　History　169　
。　He　should　always　buy　shares　in　a　good　ship　or　in　none　at　all。　
。　If　he　acquires　wealth　rapidly；　then　he　should　invest　part　of　his　wealth　in　
a　partnership　trade　with　others　doing　the　travelling；　but　he　should　be　
cautious　in　selecting　partners。　
。　If　he　acquires　a　great　deal　of　wealth　in　trade；　let　him　divide　it　into　three　
parts。　Let　him　invest　one…third　in　partnership　with　experienced　and　
reliable　men　who　are　permanently　located　in　towns。　The　other　twothirds　
may　then　be　invested　in　various　business　ventures　for　the　sake　of　
the　safety　that　lies　in　diversity。　
Banking　and　the　Knights　Templar　
Despite　being　remembered　mostly　for　their　military　prowess　during　the　
crusades；　this　order　of　knights　became；　in　part　by　accident；　the　first　major　
international　banking　institution。　Their　specific　forte　was　in　keeping　the　
highways　open　to　allow　pilgrims　to　e　to　the　Holy　Land　unmolested。　
This　goal　inevitably　meant　that　the　Templars　owned　some　of　the　mightiest　
castles；　and　because　of　their　awesome　reputation　as　fighting　men；　their　
castles　served　as　ideal　places　to　deposit　money　and　other　valuables。　A　
French　knight；　for　example；　could　deposit　money　or　mortgage　his　chateau　
through　the　Templars　in　Paris　and　pick　up　gold　coins　along　the　route　to　
Jerusalem；　and　back　again　if　he　survived！　The　Templars　charged　a　fee　both　
for　the　transaction　and　for　converting　the　money　into　various　currencies　
along　the　route。　
Over　the　years　the　business　grew　and　eventually　the　Templars　ran　a　
network　of　full…service　banks　stretching　across　Europe　from　England　to　
Jerusalem。　At　their　maximum　strength　the　Templars　employed　about　7；000　
people；　owned　870　castles　and　fortified　houses　and　were　the　principal　
banker　to　popes　and　kings。　
Free　trade　and　the　Hanseatic　League　
Following　the　ravages　of　the　Black　Death　in　Europe；　cities　began　to　grow　
and　prosper　as　trade　increased　and　small…scale　manufacturing　revived。　In　
the　northern　German　seaports；　merchants　and　traders　sought　protection　
for　their　business　transactions　and　the　transport　of　their　goods。　The　city　of　
Lubeck　had　made　a　treaty　with　the　city　of　Hamburg　in　1230；　which　established　
free　trade　between　the　two　and　guaranteed　that　the　road　linking　the　
North　Sea　and　the　Baltic　Sea　would　be　guarded。　The　absence　of　a　strong　
central　government　in　Germany　allowed　the　cities　to　make　such　treaties；　
and　soon　other　munities　asked　to　join　the　arrangement。　Riga；　Danzig；　a　
trade　centre　in　London　in　1266；　and　Novgorod　in　Russia　all　became　part　of　
the　League’s　network　of　85　cities。
170　The　Thirty…Day　MBA　
At　its　peak　the　League　maintained　an　army　and　a　navy；　guarded　roads　
from　city　to　city；　kept　a　fortress　and　a　storehouse　in　each　city；　waged　war　
and　enforced　the　merchant’s　laws　at　the　various　fairs。　
Hansa　businessmen　created　partnerships　for　single　ventures　only；　sending　
a　ship　from　one　port　to　another　and　then　dissolving　the　organization。　
Their　bookkeeping　techniques　were　crude；　and　they　constantly　fought　over　
the　division　of　profits　and　the　calculation　of　losses。　
As　powerful　rulers　created　nation　states　in　England；　France；　Russia　and　
Sweden；　this　loose　federation　of　merchants　simply　could　not　succeed　as　
modern　nation　states　emerged。　Its　last　general　assembly　is　said　to　have　
been　held　about　1669；　but　its　power　had　long　since　evaporated。　
The　House　of　Fugger　
Fugger’s　business　was　a　bridge　between　the　Mediaeval　and　modern　
worlds。　The　dynasty　began　in　1367　when　Hans　Fugger　moved　his　family　to　
Augsburg；　Bavaria；　and　started　a　business　weaving　fustian；　a　strong　co。。onand…
linen　fabric。　His　sons　Andreas　and　Jacob　I　developed　the　family　textile　
trade　before　severing　their　partnership　in　1454。　On　their　own；　both　branches　
continued　to　expand　their　reach。　Andreas　and　his　sons　moved　into　finance；　
in　Antwerp　and　Venice　as　well　as　Augsburg。　Jacob’s　sons　evolved　from　
trade　in　textile　goods　to　co。。on　and　spice；　and　ultimately　into　mining　and　
processing　silver　and　copper。　The　family　developed　a　network　of　trading　
posts　under　Jacob’s　nephew　and　successor　Anton　that　by　1525　extended　
from　the　Mediterranean　to　the　Baltic。　
When　Anton’s　nephew　Hans　Jacob　（1516–75）　took　over；　he　kept　control　
of　their　holdings　through　regular　reports　from　their　worldwide　network　
of　agents。　These　reports　were　consolidated　into　‘Fugger　Newsle。。ers’　and　
circulated　among　their　associates。　This　was　one　of　the　first　uses　of　the　word　
‘news’　to　refer　to　deliberate　a。。empts　to　gather　the　latest　intelligence。　Three　
branches　of　descendants　survive　today；　one　of　them　–　Prince　Carl　Fugger…　
Baben…hausen　–　re…established　the　Fugger　bank　in　1954。　
THE　ERA　OF　VENTURES　（1700–1900）　
Throughout　history　until　the　18th　century　most　businesses　were　small；　selffinanced　
and　usually　short…lived　affairs。　True；　there　were　exceptions；　The　
East　India　pany　was　a　monopoly　that　all　but　ran　India　and　the　Far　
East；　even　having　its　own　military　and　governmental　functions。　The　Peruzzi　
pany；　one　of　the　largest　Florentine　business　ventures；　was　60　per　cent　
financed　by　seven　family　members　and　40　per　cent　by　ten　outsiders　as　far　
back　as　1300。　It　was　organized　as　quasi…permanent　multiple　partnerships。　
Pacioli’s　double…entry　bookkeeping　system　（see　Chapter　1）　had　made　
Business　History　171　
long…term　ventures　possible　for　the　Venetian　merchant　adventurers。　But　the　
general　rule　was　that　business　was　either　a　one…man　band　or　family　affair；　
using　their　own　limited　financial　resources；　and　any　collaboration　with　
other　business　people　was　on　a　venture…by…venture　basis。　The　Industrial　
Revolution　was　about　to　change　all　that；　but　three　other　trading　innovations；　
though　less　well　recognized；　were　set　to　have　an　equally　profound　effect　on　
business　life。　
Intellectual　property　rights　
A　patent　gives　the　owner　of　an　invention　the　right　to　take　legal　action　
against　others　to　prevent　the　unlicensed　manufacture；　use；　importation　or　
sale　of　the　patented　invention。　Its　purpose　is　to　give　inventors　the　breathing　
space　to　develop　a　business　based　on　the　invention；　or　to　license　it　to　
someone　who　can。　A　patent　is　in　essence　a　bargain　between　the　state　and　
the　inventor。　The　state　offers　a　short…term　monopoly　of　around　20　years；　in　
return　for　the　inventor　making　a　full　description　of　the　invention　–　known　
as　a　specification　–　public　through　the　Patent　Office。　In　this　way；　other　
inventors　can　readily　have　access　to　the　latest　thinking　in　practically　every　
area　of　technology　and　build　on　that　to　make　further　inventions。　That　in　
turn　creates　wealth　and　opportunities　for　the　country　concerned。　The　speed　
with　which　information　now　flows　and　the　global　nature　of　enterprise　mean　
that　any　benefit　is　more　to　the　general　good　rather　than　to　any　country；　but　
the　principle　remains。　
The　origins　of　patents　for　invention　are　obscure　and　no　one　country　can　
claim　to　have　been　the　first　in　the　field　with